Forms of Government 1
Forms of Government
Introduction
What form of government should Nepal adopt through the new constitution?
Many have firm views about it and others are simply confused. What should
Nepal choose?
There are approximately 200 existing political systems around the world and
each has its distinct features and characteristics.
Ancient Greek philosophers classified governments as monarchy, aristocracy,
polity, tyranny, oligarchy and democracy. States can also be classified by
whether they have a unitary or federal form of government, or whether they
are democracies or dictatorships. Within democratic systems, there are many
different models. Some systems place more powers in the parliament and are
called parliamentary systems, and other systems place more powers into a directly
elected president and are called presidential systems. Among parliamentary
and presidential systems there will be different outcomes depending on other
factors, such as the party landscape (number of parties), the electoral system, the
availability of natural resources and the role of civil society.
Generally, constitutions do not expressly declare that they have adopted a
presidential, parliamentary or mixed system. Each constitution designs its own
specific balance between the different branches of government, and political
scientists then categorize them as following a specific model. In drafting a
new constitution, the choice is not necessarily between one model or another.
The challenge is to find the appropriate setup of institutions and assign them
with clear and appropriate powers. The goal should be to guarantee a political
outcome for the country, such as stability, social harmony, good governance,
and the rule of law.
It is sometimes assumed that countries in crisis or transition need 'strong'
governments to develop successfully. However, it is not clear what constitutional
arrangements lead to a 'strong' government. Concentrating all constitutional
powers in one office-holder, such as the president, is no guarantee for establishing
strong and effective governance. Rather, states which concentrate all powers
2 Forms of Government
in the executive ("super-presidential systems") generally tend to be autocratic.
Many are conflict-prone and not focused on its citizens' welfare. On the other
hand, a strong political consensus among different parties can help overcome
constraints and still result in effective and responsive government.
Definitions
General forms of Government
Monarchy (Absolute/Constitutional)
A form of government in which supreme
power is lodged in an individual, who is the
head of state, and is set apart from all other
institutions of the state.
Hereditary rule is a characteristic.
Republic
A state that is not led by a
monarch.
Autocracy/Dictatorship/Single Party
Autocracy is a form of government in
which the political power is held by a single,
self-appointed ruler.
A dictator is an authoritarian ruler (e.g.
absolutist or autocratic) who assumes sole and
absolute power.
A single-party state is a type of government
in which a single party forms the government
and no other parties are permitted to contest
elections and are prevented from legally
getting power.
Democracy
A form of government in which
power is held directly or indirectly
by citizens under a free electoral
system. It is derived from
the Greek word for "people's
government". Nowadays,
democracy is also expected to
have other qualitative attributes
such as political pluralism, human
rights and the rule of law.
Unitary State
A country which is governed as one single
unit and power is concentrated in the
central government. The political power
of government in such states may well
be transferred to lower levels, to national,
regional or local elected assemblies, governors
and mayors (devolved government), but the
central government retains the principal right
to recall such delegated power.
Federal State
A country comprising a number
of partially self-governing states
or regions united by a central
("federal") government. In a
federation, the self-governing status
of the constituent units is typically
guaranteed in the constitution and
may not be altered unilaterally by
the central government.
Forms of Government 3
Majoritarian
A form of government
adopting an electoral system
which is based on a "winnertakes-
all" principle. In the
simplest majoritarian system,
"first past the post", the
winner does not even need a
majority in a constituency.
Consensual
Consensus democracy is characterized by
a decision making structure which involves
and takes into account as broad a range of
political party opinions as possible. Consensus
democracy also features increased citizen
participation both in determining the political
agenda and in the decision making process
itself. Often it is based on a proportional
representation (PR) electoral system.
Basic concepts and principles
Democratic government is characterized by the "separation of powers" between
the three branches of government – the executive, the legislative and the judicial
branch. This is also known as the system of "checks and balances". But no
democratic system exists with an absolute separation of powers or an absolute
lack of separation of powers. While constitutions rarely mention this separation
of powers explicitly, this can be seen from an analysis of the relationships
between the different constitutional organs i.e. the executive, the legislature and
the judiciary. The manner and extent to which powers are separated vary in
degree from one country to the other.
Excutive
Legislative Judiciary
Parliamentary democracies do not have distinct separation of powers. The
executive is drawn from the legislature. In such systems the government and the
administration (executive branch) are nevertheless bound to act only within and
on the basis of the laws adopted by the parliament. Even if the legislative and
executive branches are more closely connected, in parliamentary systems there
is usually an independent judiciary.
4 Forms of Government
Types of democratic governments
Democratic forms of government can further be distinguished by the relative
powers they invest in their highest offices. The most common systems are the
parliamentary system and the presidential system, and there are a number of
variations between the two. The presidential and parliamentary systems exist in
both federal and unitary states and on the basis of different electoral systems.
The parliamentary system is the most widely practiced governance system in
the world today. In that system, a prime minister is the head of the government,
and chairs the council of ministers/cabinet which advises on government
policy. The prime minister is elected by the legislature, most often on the basis
of a majority vote. The government is collectively accountable to parliament
and requires its continued confidence to stay in power. The legislature itself is
elected on the basis of a multiparty system and adult franchise. Like the Prime
Minister, cabinet ministers are also normally members of the parliament. In
a parliamentary system the role of the Head of State is largely ceremonial
(a monarch or a president elected by the legislature). In countries with a
parliamentary system of government, political power is vested with the council
or cabinet of ministers headed by the Prime Minister.
Another common form of democratic governance is the presidential system.
It features an executive president directly elected by the people, who heads the
state and the government. S/he cannot be removed by the legislature except
in extraordinary circumstances through an impeachment process. Her/his
constitutional term limit normally ranges from 4 to 7 years. Many such systems
limit the number of terms a president can serve. The President appoints some
members of her/his cabinet ("Ministers", "Secretaries") at her/his discretion.
However some offices may need to be approved through parliamentary
hearings. All cabinet members are accountable to the President, but are normally
answerable also the parliament. This is referred to as parliamentary oversight.
Some countries have adopted a semi-presidential system. In such a system
the president is elected directly by the people. The prime minister is appointed
by the president from the party in parliament that has the largest majority.
The other members of the government are appointed by the president on
the recommendation of the prime minister. Both the president and the prime
minister play prominent roles in the day-to-day political life. Various countries
have different traditions regarding the division of power between them. In
Forms of Government 5
some semi-presidential systems the president chairs the meetings of the council
of ministers. The ordinances and executive decisions made by the council of
ministers are issued by the president. The president, along with parliament
has the power to make laws. The President can request the parliament or a
Constitutional Court to review legislation.
Similarly, in the rare and unusual semi-parliamentary system the supreme
executive power of the country rests with a federal council consisting of a few
members. One of the members of the council is elected as the president, but the
member as the president does not possess any special rights. All the councilors
of the federal council are equal to each other in status. The federal council is
elected by the joint session of the parliament following the general election.
Nepal and Governance System
Historically, the predominant form of government in Nepal has been
monarchical and unitary. Following the unification of Nepal's territory in the
late 18th century, the Shah dynasty ruled the country from 1768 until recently.
From 1846 to 1950 Nepal was ruled by a hereditary dynasty of Prime Ministers
from the Rana family, which exercised absolute power while paying nominal
allegiance to the Shah kings. After the king’s return to effective rule in 1950,
Nepal was governed by the king assisted by the leaders of political parties. In
1959, the king issued a constitution, and the first democratic elections were held.
The leader of the victorious Nepali Congress Party formed a government and
served as prime minister until 1962. Then, the king dissolved the government
declaring parliamentary democracy a failure. He promulgated a new constitution
instituting a "partyless" panchayat ("council") system. In that system the king
played the key role in government. He constituted the source of all executive,
legislative and judicial power.
In 1990, a popular movement forced the monarchy to accept constitutional
reforms and to allow a multiparty parliament. In May 1991, Nepal held its second
parliamentary elections. Claiming constitutionally reserved emergency powers,
on 1 February 2005, King Gyanendra dismissed the government and assumed
full executive powers, declaring a "state of emergency" to put down the Maoist
movement. In April 2006, strikes and street protests in Kathmandu forced the
king to reinstate the parliament. A seven-party coalition resumed control of the
government and stripped the king of most of his powers.
6 Forms of Government
As of 15 January 2007 Nepal has been governed by a unicameral legislature
under an interim constitution, which initially vested many powers hitherto
reserved for the king in the Interim Prime Minister. On 24 December 2007,
the ruling parties agreed to abolish the monarchy and declare Nepal a Federal
Republic. The decision was formally adopted on 28 May 2008 by the newly
elected Constituent Assembly. On 11 June, 2008 ex-king Gyanendra left the
palace. On 23 July 2008, Ram Baran Yadav became the first president of Nepal
and is the new head of state until a new Constitution will be adopted. On 15
August 2008, Pushpa Kamal Dahal, Prachanda, was elected as the first Prime
Minister. He has been heading a coalition government since.
The form of governance established by the Interim Constitution is a
parliamentary system with some minor semi-presidential elements. The powers
of the executive branch (council of ministers) are considerably significant while
some elements of separation of powers and checks and balances exist.
Possible topics of discussion for the Constituent Assembly
The organizational structure of the new governance system is likely to be one
of the most hotly debated subjects for the Constituent Assembly. The key issues
that need to be determined in this context relate to the following issues:
What kind of organizational structure »» should be chosen for the centre and
provinces in Nepal - i.e. parliamentary, presidential, a mixed system, or any other
type? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each system for Nepal?
»» If a mixed system is chosen what should be the executive relationship
between the President and the Prime Minister, or how should power be
divided between the two under the chosen organizational structure?
»» What should be the criteria for the election of the President/the Prime Minister,
their qualification, term of office, accountability, removal from office?
»» Formation of the council of ministers, the approaches to make it inclusive,
division of ministries and necessary arrangements to run the ministries.
»» What should be the functions, duties and rights of the council of ministers
laid out in the constitution?
»» What kind of relations should be there between the government and the
legislative and the judiciary; checks and balances; separation of powers?
Forms of Government 7
»» What type of relations should there be between the government and the
special constitutional bodies, in view of the need to establish and preserve
their independence.
»» Role and responsibility of the head of the state or the head of the government
(if different) in the formation, organization, mobilization, and control of
the armed forces.
»» Mutual relations, checks and balance between the central federal government,
constituent federal units and local self-governments
Constitutional Alternatives
Nepal should study the various options and consider their implications and
appropriateness in the context of Nepal. Outlined below are the main options
available and the salient features of each systems is also highlighted.
Options Strengths/Advantages Challenges
1. Parliamentary
Government
»» Possibility of creating a broad
and inclusive government in
the deeply divided society
»» Possibility of removing the
Prime Minister (who loses the
confidence of the parliament)
at any time
»» Possibility for the prime
minister to call for a fresh
election at any time
»» Stronger role for federal units
possible through representation
in federal government
»» Possibility of repeated
dissolution of government
owing to division in the
coalition
»» Government could collapse
by a simple majority vote
»» Parliament may not be critical
of the government owing to
the intimate relationship
»» Inability on the part of the
government to introduce bold
policies and programmes for
the fear of being ousted
2. Executive
Presidential
Government
»» Because the President cannot
be removed by a simple
majority of the legislative
tenure of executive ensured;
This may create stable
environment to implement
programs
»» Direct election will enhance
the link with the people
»» Risk of the President
becoming autocratic due to
lack of controls and balance
»» President can not be removed
even if s/he loses all support
»» Lack of checks and balances
of the executive
»» Less chance for a member
of a small minority
community to be elected as
the Head of the Executive
8 Forms of Government
3. Semi-
Presidential
Government
»» The President is elected
by voters and the council
of ministers is formed
with the confidence of the
parliament
»» The council of ministers is
accountable to parliament
even if it is formed by the
president
»» Possible to create political
consensus if president and
Prime Minister are from
different parties
»» It could be difficult for
the President and the
Prime Minister to reach
an agreement if the Prime
Minister is from another
party
»» Disputes could arise
regarding the division
of functions, duties and
powers.
4. Semiparliamentary
government
»» Adoption of pluralistic
leadership and collective
decision- making approach
by the federal council
»» The members of the
Executive can participate
and express their view in
the parliament
»» Weak executive owing
to the lack of single
leadership
»» Complicated, expensive,
time consuming
»» Lack of accountability due
to inability to pass the vote
of no confidence and no
provision of impeachment
a(removal from office)
Conclusion
All four alternatives discussed above as well as variations based on these models
are democratic options that Nepal could consider. However, the appropriate
choice must fit with Nepal political culture, its aspirations and what it can afford
and effectively manage. Elements from all these alternatives could be considered
and be adapted to suit the new federal model of Nepal.
About this booklet series
This series of papers is intended to provide a basic background for Constituent
Assembly members and the interested public on issues related to the constitution
building process. They are not position papers, proposals or intend to preempt
any constitutional outcome in any other way. They are the result of a cooperative
effort of Nepali and international constitutional experts, coordinated by UNDP’s
Support to Participatory Constitution Building in Nepal project.
These papers are living documents, and feedback and comments are strongly
encouraged. The more they will lead to informed, engaged and constructive
discussion and exchanges, the more will their objective be attained. As comments
are received further versions of this document or additional issues may
be prepared.
In translating them into some of Nepal’s major national languages, all effort
has been made to achieve a high level of quality standards and the correct
terminology, which will be understood by a majority of the speakers of those
languages. However, future debates within the various linguistic communities
on the proper and correct use of terms can be expected. CCD did not want to
preempt that discussion in any way, but rather sought to maximize the reach and
inclusiveness of this effort by including those languages.
This booklet is part of a series of documents to be developed by the Centre for
Constitutional Dialogue (CCD) on themes relevant to the constitution building
process in Nepal.
The objective of this series is to engage Constituent Assembly members as
well as the interested public with key constitutional concepts and issues. Each
document is available in the major languages used in Nepal – Nepali, Maithili,
Bhojpuri, Tharu, Magar, Tamang, Newar and English. Each document is also
available in audio format as well as online.
In the first phase it is envisaged that the publication series will include the
following themes: State and Religion, Federal System, Human Rights in the
Constitution, Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Minority Rights, Systems of
Government, Independent Judiciary, Local Self-Governance, Diversity and
Social Inclusion, and Participatory Constitution Making Process.
Centre for Constitutional Dialogue (CCD)
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