POLITICAL THEORY

© Rajeev Kunwar Page 1 6/29/2010
L.L.B Lecture at Kathmandu School of Law
1. Introduction to Political Science
Political Science is the study of first as an art and then a science of resolving conflicting issues, of
redistributing resources and of selecting appropriate choices in the best interests of a society and state. It
is the scientific study of a rational and legal management of a society and state and conceptualization
related to interrelation and interaction of the people inhabiting a state.
Its importance is increasing day by day. It is the demand of our new democratic era to groom and
nurture vigilant, democratic and active citizenry. The objective of Political Science is to produce ideal
citizens.
It has become mundane to say political science as a science deals with the state and government. The
first people from the Hellenic world discerned political science in its pure and systematic form. Though
the Hindu political thought did say about running the state and upholding dharma in statecraft it could
not make a breakthrough in producing a comprehensive political theory. Confucius and Kautilya seem
to have been more concerned with the art of government than with the theory of the state. At the very
beginning a study of political science concerns the precise meaning of a term politics. Without
understanding the substance of politics one can not unravel multitude and intricate problems and issues
pertaining to the state. In France and Germany, however, political science seems to have attained a
greater degree of refinement than in the Anglo-Saxon countries. Aristotle, the father of political science
had covered the treatise on it in his celebrated corpus entitled Politics. It is derived from the Greek
words polis or city state.
Aristotle described politics as the ‘master science’ and it is the key to everything else that human beings
do. It is so central and so complex that its importance can be hardly exaggerated. Politics is concerned
with the making of decisions in society. But politics is not action, but interaction; it is both what
decision-makers do to people, and what people do to try to influence the decision-makers. Hence it is to
be found everywhere in society where decisions have to be made, and nowhere more so than where the
most fundamental and crucial questions have to be resolved.
Otto von Bismarck defined politics as ‘the art of possible’. It is the only game of town. It is the technique
of compromise. Sir Ernest Benn humorously defined politics as ‘the art of looking for trouble, finding it
whether it exists or not, diagnosing it wrongly and applying the wrong remedy’. According to R.G.
Gettel political science is ‘a historical investigation of what the state has been, an analytical study of
what the state is, and a politico-ethical discussion of what the state should be’.
Political science is what political scientists do not only from 9 am to 5 pm but also vigilant of any
breaking news all day and night. Heinz Eulau maintains that “political scientists are ridding off in many
directions, evidently on the assumption that if you don’t know where you are going, any road will take
you there. O.R. Young says they are “polyglot army that marches under the banner of ‘Political Science.”
Plato and Aristotle dealt with politics but did not visualize an independent identity of the discipline.
However their disciples followed what their masters had bequeathed to them – Platonic idealism and
imagination on the one hand and Aristotelian observation and comparative methods on the other. For
many centuries politics was delved in philosophy. But form 15th century onwards texts were written
about politics. Ideologies based on nation-state, nationalism and national politics started to flourish.
Machiavelli germinated realist doctrines of national politics. Though articles and books made politics an
independent status it became an academic discipline after many years. Sometimes it was studied under
philosophy, history and methodology. The principle indebtness goes to the US for establishing a
departmental status of the discipline. At the beginning modern political science was filled with
pessimism as it covered what some other fields did not. Its origin therefore was not an intellectual
necessity but of an external influence.
First stage started is before 1850 which emphasized on philosophical and deductive reasoning. Second
age from 1850 to 1900 stressed on historical and comparative methods. Third age from 1900 to 1923
focused on observation, survey and measurement approaches. Charles Merriam says after 1923 there is
final era where psychoanalysis was prescribed for political problems because of human nature and
behaviour was decisive in political life as well. One can include empirical and interdisciplinary
approach or behavioural era after the post-War world. It stressed on value-free scientific study of
individuals as a unique unit of political analysis.
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L.L.B Lecture at Kathmandu School of Law
Harold D. Laswell says politics is a science of power and influence and it is about “who gets what, when
and how?” David Easton says politics is vested with an “authoritative allocation of values in a society”.
Values here mean work, goods, economic power, status, position and desires. Karl Deutsch opines
politics is “more or less incomplete control of human behaviour through voluntary habits of compliance
in combination with threats of probable enforcement”. To A. Appadorai, an Indian political theorist,
says political science involves “a study of the organization of society in its widest sense, including all
organizations, the family, the trade union and the state, with special reference to one aspect of human
behaviour, the exercise of control and the rendering of obedience.”
A study of political theory in some quarters today is minimized as being an abstract and a barren subject.
Nonetheless political theory gives exactness and definiteness to the meaning of political terms. It is
convivial for clarity and honesty of thought.
Nature
It is an inescapable disciplinary realm that deters us to escape from freedom. It initiates and motivates us
to create a good life.
It encompasses all nook and cranny of society and excludes none. It is pervasive and omnipresent in this
corporeal world. One can not devalue it and sideline in the process of exercising control, coercion and
concurrence (3Cs). It occupies a stature that every act governing human life revolves around it. It
consists of formulating, executing and adjudicating of policies, law and decisions in national society,
consensual means of politicking political society, critiquing by civil society, accumulating power
coupled with economic freedom and the least of all maintaining unity in family.
Scope
Political science comprises a theory of the state and of the distribution of power in that society. Thus it
should start its analysis by identifying three types of social orders – feudal, capitalist and socialist which
have characterized most of medieval and modern human history. To understand political system
requires learning about the major economic and social traits of the society in which that political system
operates. A political scientist can proceed towards description of the main political institutions and the
sociology of ruling class and governing elite in that system. It can also lead to the clarification and
discussion of the purpose and role of governments in the context of prevailing ideology of the ruling
class such as feudalism, capitalism or socialism. It may elucidate class power and its consolidation and
the part played by the bureaucracy, the military and the judiciary.
Contemporary political science also examines the roles of the State in emancipatory and empowering
means for responding to competition, choice and conflict existing or surfacing in society. In addition it
discusses the agencies of legitimation such as the political parties, the Fourth Estate and education sector.
Finally political theory makes an attempt to predict some of the directions in which political systems of
today – pre-industrial, advanced capitalistic or planned socialistic – are moving. Political theory can no
longer remain exclusive domain of Anglo-Saxon and European preserve. It can accommodate novel
ideas and thoughts on developing societies of Asia, Africa and Latin America.
Relation of Political Science with other Social Sciences & Law
Social sciences are concerned with human behaviour, ethics and their activities. All social science we
are going to deal studies the nub of society and individuals inhabiting in it. Since political science deals
with activities related with society, individuals, government and state it has correlation with other areas
of social sciences. it is first as an art for those who practice it (politicians) that is what it is, a skill which
they generally learn by trial and error, and not by study. All statements in the social sciences are
statements of probability. Consequently, any statement about human behaviour can be true only for
individuals in groups at the most, and can say nothing about the certainty of action by a single
individual. It can be regarded as a science because it has a defined and unique field of study and it does
seek to build up a body knowledge which is as comprehensive and exact as techniques permit. It also
makes use of the hypothetico-deductive method to derive regular principles from observing the
behaviour of both individuals and groups. Lets investigate briefly on relations with other social sciences.
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L.L.B Lecture at Kathmandu School of Law
Political Science and History
They are mutually inclusive as history can not be understood without underlying politics and its
undercurrent whilst politics can not be comprehended without unraveling roots of our present. Seeley
says “politics without history has no root; history without politics has no fruit”. To Bryce political
science “stands midway between history and politics, between the past and the present. It has to draw
material from one, and it has to apply them together.” Freeman remarks “history is nothing but past
politics and politics is nothing but current history.” Knowledge of history acts as a priceless precedent
when rational decisions are taken at the present and in the future. So creating invaluable contribution
combined with prudence and politic decision making is the hallmark of becoming and being history. It
will become timeless and immanent in nature that constantly impinges on pursuit of perfectionism
whatsoever elusive.
It unearths the lineages of our political system and genealogy of a politically charged world. Without
deep insight of history one can not provide convincing analysis of the present.
Political Science and Economics
With their objectives to materialize welfare and egalitarian state, they are two sides of the same coin.
They are deeply intertwined as one is concerned with redistribution other is with choices of exploiting
resources. To Marshal “economics is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life.” History is
testimony to the fact that economically unsound can create havoc on a political life of a state. Limited
economic opportunities available in a political system can invite an upheaval that can change the
political structure or superstructure to Marxists. For robust and healthy economy political stability is a
good sign for it. Unstable politics create uncertainty in stock markets and financial sector. Fiscal policy
formulated annually tries to complement in achieving political aspirations and objectives. Their
importance can not be nullified as in concerted manner economics acts as a glove in political hand. Thus
political economy is concerned with the state whereas economy is in the life world. Economics has
predominant influence in political decisions for the sustainability of the desired programmes centered
on the people.
Political Science and Psychology
They are Siamese twins as one can not feel the abstractness of a state without enliven by human
consciousness. The rational human action is to be understood about the situation of and systemic
pressures on an individual. So the concretization of state endeavours is fulfilled by human motivation at
action level. Thus proper understanding of human well-being, psyche and temperament is essential for
the study of political science to be invigorated.
Garner has highlighted the interrelation of both by saying that “government to be stable and really
popular must reflect and express the mental ideas and moral sentiments of those who are subject to its
authority. In short it must be in harmony with what Le Bon calls the “mental constitution of the race.”
The men in general are not moved much by ideas and ideals, by theories and the logic of facts as by
their preconceived motions, and dispositions, and their fears and prejudices. Human is more sub rational
and irrational than rational. When party executes whip there is no dissent there is no unanimity of
consensus but unanimity of veto force.
Political Science and Sociology
Political science is narrower than sociology as the latter deals with a society in all its manifestations and
perceptions. Since it studies organized as well as unorganized community and groups whereas political
science deals with the legal existence of organizations. One can not realize political ideals and ideas to
materialize unless social customs, traits, institutions and mores are in conformity with modern norms
and values formulated by political decisions. It can be a formidable barrier if we do not address social
malaise and ills plaguing hierarchised and rigidly stratified society. It resembles or mirrors in our
politics. Therefore sociological help is required to get the real picture of politics in contemporary social
set up.
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L.L.B Lecture at Kathmandu School of Law
Political Science and Ethics
Political order and moral order are two species of the same genus implying that politics without ethics is
impossible to imagine. Since ancient days political Judgement should be coupled with individual’s
highest moral prudence. Politics divorced from ethics corrupts moral standing and gives legitimacy to
immoral activities of and in a state. To create a moral society and virtuous state politics must be
conducted as ethics writ large. In the post human future science has wielded or moulded state power in
its compliance for a ruthless and unethical scientific practices and research. It can increase social issues
as well problems requiring political power to handle it with care.
Political Science and Geography
The roots of politics are nurtured by the influence of the climate, topography and physical features of a
nation that condition the life of individuals to a considerable extent. The habitat and its milieu play an
important part in human’s life. Geography has reflected in political settings, character and institutions.
It determines while formulating national plans and policies. And IR scholars are fond of studying
geopolitics as politics is shaped by geography.
Political Science and Law
Law governs the state and it is codified to shape the character of individuals. The state is both a social
phenomena and a legal institution. Political science and law is intricately tied up. For good governance
formulation, execution and adjudication of laws are therefore extremely imperative. Thus they have
deep relationship which is impossible to imagine if without one. As we all know that contemporary
society is based on the rule of law. Constitution, national laws and international law defines the
relations between individual, state and international society. Concepts such as fundamental rights and
directive principles of state policy impinge as much on law as on ethics and politics.
Method of studying
There are many methods of studying political phenomena which can be collected and classified to get
practical results. Auguste Comte devised principal methods as observation, experiment and comparison.
Bluntshcli holds that true methods are philosophical and historical. To contemporary political scientists
inductive and pragmatic methods are more certain to lead to positive results in political science than
deductive and dogmatic methods. The methods which are generally favoured by them are ;- 1. the
experimental, 2. the historical, 3. the comparative, 4. the method of observation, 5. the philosophical.
1. The Experimental Method
All laws, policies, ad political systems are instituted within a necessary framework of experiment,
and by studying such experiments the political scientist is able to reach positive conclusions. It is
his task to take note of the political events and innovations that constantly go on about him and to
make deductions from them. Governments are ever trying experiments on community or they
intervene through planning and policies.
2. The Historical Method
It may be regarded as a form of the experimental method and a proper study of history is a
corrective to hasty and one-sided conclusions in politics.
3. The Comparative Method
It supplements the historical method and helps us to relate events, to establish causes and effects,
and to arrive at general principles. It gathers the multiplicity of phenomena, arranges them in order,
and selects the elements common to them. It shows not only resemblances but also differences.
Analogical method is another form of it. It can give us probability but not certainty.
4. The Method of Observation
It is an inductive one and considered to be the true method of investigation. It rests upon an
observation of the actual working of political institutions at close range.
5. The Philosophical Method
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L.L.B Lecture at Kathmandu School of Law
It is a deductive or a priori kind. It determines the nature, end or purpose of the state on
philosophical and ethical grounds and then casts about for the best forms of political institutions for
the realization of this end.
Approaches to the Study of Political Science
Normative approach (Building a road (ought to), by one year (goal or target), to provide and use public
goods (mission), persuasion of bureaucrats in Municipalities (strategy))
Positive approach (economic constraints hampering the speediness of activities, apathetic or
unconcerned individuals or members of the district)
According to David E. Apter there are six different views of politics or systems of political analysis
which are as follows:
1. Political Philosophy
It is based on the application of reason to the study of human affairs. Ethical and philosophical
principles are combined to give precepts to guide political action. It gave distinct ideals and norms
to political institutions.
2. Institutionalism assumes certain ethical priorities as given and attempts to realize them in the
mechanisms of government. Thus its emphasis is on legal and historical analysis, descriptive and
comparative methods and interest group theory. It views that political institutions realize
philosophical ideals in governmental practices.
3. Behaviouralism takes the individual as political actor. It shifts emphasis from political institutions
to the study of how people behave in the political field and what motivates their political behaviour.
4. Pluralism deals with modes of competitive and cooperative interaction among groups and the
connections between different forms of organizational behaviour. It examines the influence of
group activities on the functioning of pluralist democracy
5. Structuralism is a variant of both institutionalism and behaviouralism and concentrates on the
relation between the individual and the community. It is concerned with the ‘hidden agenda’
behind political action and seeks to discover the economic, cultural and psychological determinants
of political phenomena. Hence its preoccupation is with class analysis, exchange theory,
functionalist and dialectical methods of determining the boundaries of political system. Both
Marxists and non-Marxists structuralists pay attention on the behaviour of elites and classes, the
phenomena of change and revolution, the connection between social status and ideologies and the
factors which promote equilibrium and disequilibrium in the social and political system.
6. Developmentalism is a new ‘applied’ and inter-disciplinary approach to the study of politics. It
attempts to examine the processes of cultural modernization and economic development and
change and their impact on structures and policies of various governments. It emphasizes problems
of transitions, and how innovation occurs, problems of instability, political regimes of developing
countries, nationalism of new states, decolonization and neo-colonialism.
Political Science: Phases of Evolution
1. Formalist/institutional/legal/philosophical/historical paradigm:
Scope: Conceptual discourses – study of normative, legal, constitutional aspect of polity, necessarily
value-ridden and value-laden Judgements.
[Classical phase up to the 19th century]
2. Informal/traditional/ pre behavioural paradigm
Scope: informal practices, surrounding formal, legal and political structures – operation of interest
groups and political parties in legislatures – description and information of data, necessarily valueridden.
[Early 20th century up to 1940s]
Graham Wallace, Human Nature in Politics (1908); Arthur Bentley, The Process in Government
(1908).
3. Behavioural/empirical/positivist paradigm
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L.L.B Lecture at Kathmandu School of Law
Scope: Political behaviour of man and woman, groups, political structures, political system, political
activity and political process, political culture and political development, scientific rigour,
theorization and empirical/positivist theories, necessarily value-neutral, value-free.
[1940s, 1950s and 1960s]
American Political Science Association established in 1903
University of Chicago – Charles Merriam, The Science of Politics.
4. Post-behavioural paradigm
Scope: Behavioural concerns + concerns of social change, social-relevance, future oriented,
reinventing values
[From 1960s onwards]
5. Public Policy paradigm
Scope: Focus on governmental activity, policies and programmes, impact on social groups and
society, micro-level inquiry, policy choices and policy alternatives
[From 1960s onwards]
6. Post-modern/post-positivist paradigm
Scope: Decentering of objects of studies, knowledge-power discourses, textual-inter-textual analysis,
deconstruction and re-reading of texts, critique of grand narratives, new social movements, identity
politics and civil society.
Behaviouraism in Political Science
David Easton the proponent of behaviouralism for two decades was sometime the president of APSA. A
movement which had its beginnings in the early decades of the 20th century. It seeks:
- to alter the very focus and methodology of political science
- to bring political studies/research close to theories, methods and findings in modern psychology, sociology
and anthropology and economics
- to provide political science with empirical propositions to study political phenomenon in terms of the
“observed/observable behaviour of men/women”
The movement reflected a growing, deep dissatisfaction with the achievement of the conventional political
science.
Behaviouralism was also a response to challenges from Marxian paradigm of political and social analysis.
Behaviouralism to be distinguished from behaviourism which is associated with psychology the doctrine
that all human actions could, if full knowledge were available, be analysed into stimulus and response.
Factors influencing Behaviouralism
1. General Systems Theory (Ludwig von Bertalanff)
- the need for unification of sciences, rejecting compartmentalization of disciplines
- the need for a set of principles transcending traditional boundaries
2. The Chicago School
contributions of Charles Merriam, Harold D. Lasswell, V.O. Key, David Truman, Herbert Simari,
Gabriel Almond et al.
3. European Migrant Scholars
German intellectual refugees in the US bringing in sociological approach influenced by Max Weber
and other European sociologists like Auguste Comte, Émile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, Pareto,
Mosca et al.
Interactions contributed to sociological perspectives in political studies. Emergence of political
sociology
4. Logical Positivism and Linguistic Philosophy
Logical Positivism – Vienna Circle; group of philosophers and mathematicians founded by Schlick,
popularized by Rudolf Cornap, Otto von Neurah, Visto Kraft, Karl popper, Ludwig Wittgenstein et
al.
- advocating that knowledge based on something beyond human experience is meaningless and,
therefore, fallible.
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L.L.B Lecture at Kathmandu School of Law
- all concepts and statements should be verifiable, empirically proved.
5. the Second World War
The developments in the international sphere. Emergence of Nazism and Fascism; War and shifting
strategies of big powers, inability of social scientists to predict war.
6. Contributions of Social Science Research Council
The committee on political behaviour, beginning of electoral studies
7. Funding of Behavioural Studies
Patronising and funding by Rockfeller, Carnegie and Ford foundations.
Support to American universities for behavioural studies.
Behaviouralism: Major Traits
1. Regularities of Political behaviour:
- Why do people behave in a more or less similar manner at different times?
- possibilities of predictions on the basis of observation of political behaviour
2. Methodological rigour:
A. Systematisation and theory building
i. Conceptualising politics within a theoretical framework
ii. Developing appropriate methodologies
iii. Posing relevant research questions
iv. Formulating hypothesis
B. Quantification
i. Collection and classification of data
ii. Quantifying relevant data
C. Verification
i. Validation or invalidation of data
ii. Verifying the hypothesis
D. Techniques
i. Tools of research
ii. Content analysis, random sampling, mathematical models, statistical
techniques
3. Insistence on value-neutralism
a. value-fact dichotomy
b. Should political research be value-free and ethically neutral?
4. Interdisciplinary Approach
A. Integration of social sciences
B. Cross-disciplinary studies
political science + sociology
political science + psychology
political science + economics
political science + anthropology
C. questions of identity, autonomy and integrity
sustaining the autonomy of political science
integration without losing its identity and integrity
Post-Behaviouralism
- A change/movement necessitated by the shortcomings of behaviouralism and the inadequacies of the
‘scientific’ enquiry of the positivist political science.
- A challenge against the ‘behavioural orthodoxy’.
- A deep dissatisfaction with the results of behaviouralism.
- Post-behaviouralism, however, did not seek the abandonment of scientific method in the political science.
- It called for the substantial modification of the understanding of the nature of the science.
- The trend began in American Political Science Association.
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- “The Caucus for New Political Science” sought for “ a political science which can serve the poor, oppressed
and underdeveloped peoples at home and abroad in their struggles against established hierarchies, elites and
institutional forms of manipulation.”
Sources/inspirations behind
Counter culture in the West, in the 1960s and 1990s, spreading to different parts of the world
- period of world wide social change – culture-arts-literature – polity-civil society – political economycapitalism-
development – security-war-peace – environment – Marx, Mao, Marcuse, The New Left
Movement, neo-Marxism, theories of radical political economy.
Post-behaviouralism and Counter culture
- Black/civil rights demanding equality and improvement of living conditions, student revolts/uprising in
Europe, anti-war, anti-establishment movements, struggle against Vietnam War Feminist movement, against
dominant development paradigm (struggles against poverty and social inequality)
- Environmental movements (against pollution, nuclear waste), against technological determinism, capitalist
values, nuclear energy, rapid and unregulated industrialization.
Post-behaviouralism features
- Future-oriented, social-oriented, problem-solving.
Dominant themes – ‘credo of relevance’
1. Concern for substance rather than method’
- shift of focus towards contemporary social problems
2. Concern for social change
- against empirical conservatism and social preservation
3. Concern for relevance
- reach out the real needs of humankind
4. Concern for values
- Rejection of value-neutralism
5. Concern for the values of civilization
- Task of intellectual, protection of human values
6. Concern for action
‘Action science’ in place of ‘pure science’ or ‘contemporary science’
7. Concern for politicization of profession
- Intellectuals/institutions to be part of the struggle of the day
Results of post-behaviouralism
- Open debates/discourses, scope of political science widened, new subjects of inquiry
- Policy analysis movement, the ‘end of ideology’ challenged
- Reassessment of positivist conceptions of scientific method
- Reemergence of Marxism and neo-Marxism
- Political Science began to lose sense of ‘united purpose’
- No single/dominant point of view
- Mainstream theories challenged
- fragmented methodological conceptions
- facilitated ‘new’ intellectual fashions such as post-modernism, post-structuralism, post-colonialism and
post-fordism….
A Discipline of Politics: An Overview
Politics denotes an activity which many people today feel a combination of cynicism, skepticism and
mistrust. To rescue its tarnished image and its failure to engage with the crux of political problems are
caused by overly specialization, traditionalism (study of political institutions and political philosophy) and a
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multiplicity of specialisms have characterized discipline of politics. It is subject-oriented not problem
oriented. Students require conceptual-analytical skills, theoretical-analytical skills and stress the importance
of comparative and historical skills and knowledge. It is a radical rethink and restructuring of the discipline
of politics to a more self-conscious concern with the analysis of problems and train students to use theory
and evidence for the purposes of analyses and practical action. Politics in both senses is the discourse and
struggle over the organization of human possibilities: it is academic and practical. It must be
interdisciplinary in its focus and its framework.